Second Language Research recent issues

Factoring out the parallelism effect in VP-ellipsis: English vs. Dutch contrasts

Duffield, N., Matsuo, A., Roberts, L. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 04:06:49 PST

Previous studies, including Duffield and Matsuo (2001; 2002; 2009), have demonstrated second language learners’ overall sensitivity to a parallelism constraint governing English VP-ellipsis constructions: like native speakers (NS), advanced Dutch, Spanish and Japanese learners of English reliably prefer ellipsis clauses with structurally parallel antecedents over those with non-parallel antecedents. However, these studies also suggest that, in contrast to English native speakers, L2 learners’ sensitivity to parallelism is strongly influenced by other non-syntactic formal factors, such that the constraint applies in a comparatively restricted range of construction-specific contexts. This article reports a set of follow-up experiments — from both computer-based as well as more traditional acceptability judgement tasks — that systematically manipulates these other factors. Convergent results from these tasks confirm a qualitative difference in the judgement patterns of the two groups, as well as important differences between theoreticians’ judgements and those of typical native speakers. We consider the implications of these findings for theories of ultimate attainment in second language acquisition (SLA), as well as for current theoretical accounts of ellipsis.

A referential/quantified asymmetry in the second language acquisition of English reflexives by Chinese-speaking learners

Jiang, L. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 04:06:50 PST

There has been considerable research that investigates whether reflexives in interlanguage grammars (ILGs) are constrained by Principle A of the Binding Theory. These earlier studies focused on the role of sentence type, including both finite and non-finite test sentences; they did not examine the role of antecedent type, namely distinguishing between quantified antecedents and referential antecedents in the test sentences. This study explores Chinese learners’ acquisition of the locality constraints on the binding of English reflexives from a developmental perspective, focusing both on the role of sentence type and the role of antecedent type. A story-based truth-value judgment task was administered to three proficiency levels of Chinese-speaking learners of English. It was found that the finite/non-finite asymmetry in the learners’ long-distance (LD) judgments was strongest for the intermediate participants but much weaker for the beginners and advanced participants; the referential/ quantified asymmetry in the learners’ LD judgments was strongest for the advanced participants but much weaker for the beginners and intermediate participants. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Review article: Ethical issues in the study of second language acquisition: resources for researchers

Thomas, M. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 04:06:50 PST

Two recent books provide varied resources for exploring ethical issues in the social sciences. Reflection on ethical issues aims to sensitize scholars to a range of consequences of their research, and to scholars’ responsibilities to their discipline, their colleagues, and the public. This review article assesses the utility of these texts (and of other materials available in print and online) to research on second language acquisition.

List of reviewers

Wed, 11 Nov 2009 04:06:50 PST

Processability Theory and the role of morphology in English as a second language development: a longitudinal study

Dyson, B. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:18:11 PDT

This article tests a prediction made by Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998; 2005) that morphological acquisition is the driving force in English as a second language (ESL) development. It first outlines the model of psycholinguistic processing assumed by Processability Theory and shows how stages fall out from it. It then presents the hypothesis that morphological information propels development before sentence-level processing at stage 5 and describes what this should predict for ESL learners. A study is then presented that tested these predictions on oral data collected from two Mandarin speaking, adolescent, ESL learners over one academic year. The study found the acquisition of structures both predicted and not predicted by Processability Theory. While the results afford some evidence consistent with the claims about stages of development, they also provide counter-evidence to the hypothesis that the acquisition of morphology drives development up to stage 5: one learner acquired the predicted syntax for stages 3 and 4 without the morphology, and both learners acquired syntactic structures before associated morphology. Indeed, the findings suggest that the acquisition of morphology, and syntax, varies with learner orientation. To explain these findings, the article presents a proposal that draws on both Processability Theory and generative approaches to second language acquisition (SLA), and concludes by considering the implications of the study.

Acquiring a new second language contrast: an analysis of the English laryngeal system of native speakers of Dutch

Simon, E. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:18:11 PDT

This study examines the acquisition of the English laryngeal system by native speakers of (Belgian) Dutch. Both languages have a two-way laryngeal system, but while Dutch contrasts prevoiced with short-lag stops, English has a contrast between short-lag and long-lag stops. The primary aim of the article is to test two hypotheses on the acquisition process based on first language acquisition research: (1) native speakers of a voicing language will succeed in producing short-lag stops in the target aspirating language, since short-lag stops occur early in first language acquisition and can be considered unmarked and since one member of the contrast is formed by short-lag stops in both voicing and aspirating languages, and (2) native speakers of a voicing language will succeed in acquiring long-lag stops in the target language, because aspiration is an acoustically salient realization. The analysis is based on an examination of natural speech data (conversations between dyads of informants), combined with the results of a controlled reading task. Both types of data were gathered in Dutch as well as in Eng_Dutch (i.e. the English speech of native speakers of Dutch). The analysis revealed an interesting pattern: while the first language (L1) Dutch speakers were successful in acquiring long-lag aspirated stops (confirming hypothesis 2), they did not acquire English short-lag stops (rejecting hypothesis 1). Instead of the target short-lag stops, the L1 Dutch speakers produced prevoiced stops and frequently transferred regressive voice assimilation with voiced stops as triggers from Dutch into English. Various explanations for this pattern in terms of acoustic salience, perceptual cues and training will be considered.

Further thoughts on parameters and features in second language acquisition: a reply to peer comments on Lardiere's `Some thoughts on the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition' in SLR 25(2)

Lardiere, D. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:18:11 PDT

Editorial

Sharwood Smith, M., Archibald, J., Thomas, M., Hawkins, R. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

Some thoughts on the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition

Lardiere, D. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

In this article I discuss the selection and assembly of formal features in second language acquisition. Assembling the particular lexical items of a second language (L2) requires that the learner reconfigure features from the way these are represented in the first language (L1) into new formal configurations on possibly quite different types of lexical items in the L2. I illustrate the nature of the problem by comparing the assembly and expression of features involved in plural-marking in English, Mandarin Chinese and Korean, and situate this comparison with respect to specific claims of the Nominal Mapping Parameter and within a discussion of parameter (re)setting more generally. I conclude with a few even more general thoughts on the role of Universal Grammar (UG) in (second) language acquisition.

Phonological feature re-assembly and the importance of phonetic cues

Archibald, J. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

It is argued that new phonological features can be acquired in second languages, but that both feature acquisition and feature re-assembly are affected by the robustness of phonetic cues in the input.

Uninterpretable features: psychology and plasticity in second language learnability

Birdsong, D. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

This commentary addresses the relevance of detectability to a theory of learning uninterpretable features in the second language (L2). Detectability of features is illustrated in an application of Signal Detection Theory. By analogy with development of phonemic categories in the first language (L1), the notion of paring down the repertoire of uninterpretable features is considered.

Re-assembling formal features in second language acquisition: beyond minimalism

Carroll, S. E. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

In this commentary, Lardiere's discussion of features is compared with the use of features in constraint-based theories, and it is argued that constraint-based theories might offer a more elegant account of second language acquisition (SLA). Further evidence is reported to question the accuracy of Chierchia's (1998) Nominal Mapping Parameter.

On the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition: uninterpretable gender on past participles in English--French processing

Dekydtspotter, L., Renaud, C. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

Lardiere's discussion raises important questions about the use of features in second language (L2) acquisition. This response examines predictions for processing of a feature-valuing model vs. a frequency-sensitive, associative model in explaining the acquisition of French past participle agreement. Results from a reading-time experiment support the feature-valuing model.

The kids are alright ... aren't they?

Duffield, N. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

In this commentary three aspects of the feature-based model that Lardiere assumes are discussed: the value of formalization in the investigation of second language acquisition, the extent to which native speakers converge on the same grammatical representations, and the length of time it takes to establish a mature native grammar. These factors need to be given serious consideration if the investigation of second language acquisition is to be successful.

On parameters, functional categories and features ... and why the trees shouldn't prevent us from seeing the forest ...

Liceras, J. M. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

The novelty of Lardiere's proposal does not reside in her so-called `rehabilitation' of Contrastive Analysis. In generative second language acquisition research, appeal to the best available analyses and descriptions of the languages under investigation has always been a top priority, whether the focus was parameters, functional categories or features. The novelty resides in her putting feature assembly at the forefront of the research agenda. However, arguing for feature assembly, Lardiere fails to highlight the validity and potential of constructs such as parameter-setting and feature selection, mainly because feature assembly cannot exist without feature selection, and because the deductive value of parameters can be enhanced by research meant to discover how features combine.

Putting parameters in their proper place

Montrul, S., Yoon, J. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

Seeing the logical problem of second language acquisition as that of primarily selecting and re-assembling bundles of features anew, Lardiere proposes to dispense with the deductive learning approach and its broad range of consequences subsumed under the concept of parameters. While we agree that feature assembly captures more precisely the complexity of the form—meaning mapping task in second language acquisition, we disagree with the dismissal of a parametric approach. We argue instead that the notion of parameter is not incompatible with feature assembly, if parameters and features are understood in a particular way.

Features or parameters: which one makes second language acquisition easier, and more interesting to study?

Slabakova, R. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

While agreeing with Lardiere that the `parameter-resetting' approach to understanding second language acquisition (SLA) needs rethinking, it is suggested that a more construction-based perspective runs the risk of losing deductive and explanatory power. An alternative is to investigate the constraints on feature assembly/re-assembly in second language (L2) grammars. A model of grammatical organization is adopted from Ramchand and Svenonius (2008) in which properties of the conceptual—intentional (C—I) module of mind are universal, and variation between languages is determined by the extent to which such properties are grammaticalized or determined by context. Predictions are then made about the degree of difficulty involved in determining the appropriate mapping from the C—I module to grammar or context when a learner's first language (L1) is similar to or different from the L2.

`Units of comparison' across languages, across time

Thomas, M. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

Lardiere's keynote article adverts to a succession of `units of comparison' that have been employed in the study of cross-linguistic differences, including mid-twentieth-century structural patterns, generative grammar's parameters, and (within contemporary Minimalism) features. This commentary expands on the idea of units of cross-linguistic comparison, first by developing Lardiere's observations about recent scholarship and, second, by identifying some earlier reflexes of the notion. I close by suggesting that thinking about `units of comparison' across time prepares us to better appreciate a feature-based conceptualization of L2 acquisition, and its likely trajectory.

Lexical learning in second language acquisition: optionality in the numeration

Wakabayashi, S. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

Lardiere suggests that second language acquisition (SLA) researchers should pay more attention to the distribution of a given feature in source and target languages, using the distribution of [plural] in English, Chinese and Korean to illustrate. I argue that the distribution of [definite] in English shows a similar complexity, and that this has largely been ignored in existing second language studies. I propose that it is distributional complexity of this kind that underlies the gradual development and variability observed in second language (L2) performance. A four-stage model is outlined, attributing gradual development/variability (partly) to optionality in the numeration.

Some questions about feature re-assembly

White, L. — Tue, 10 Mar 2009 08:33:44 PDT

In this commentary, differences between feature re-assembly and feature selection are discussed. Lardiere's proposals are compared to existing approaches to grammatical features in second language (L2) acquisition. Questions are raised about the predictive power of the feature re-assembly approach.

Neuroimaging and research into second language acquisition

Sabourin, L. — Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

Temporal dynamics of late second language acquisition: evidence from event-related brain potentials

Steinhauer, K., White, E. J., Drury, J. E. — Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

The ways in which age of acquisition (AoA) may affect (morpho)syntax in second language acquisition (SLA) are discussed. We suggest that event-related brain potentials (ERPs) provide an appropriate online measure to test some such effects. ERP findings of the past decade are reviewed with a focus on recent and ongoing research. It is concluded that, in contrast to previous suggestions, there is little evidence for a strict critical period in the domain of late acquired second language (L2) morphosyntax. As illustrated by data from our lab and others, proficiency rather than AoA seems to predict brain activity patterns in L2 processing, including native-like activity at very high levels of proficiency. Further, a strict distinction between linguistic structures that late L2 learners can vs. cannot learn to process in a native-like manner (Clahsen and Felser, 2006a; 2006b) may not be warranted. Instead, morphosyntactic real-time processing in general seems to undergo dramatic, but systematic, changes with increasing proficiency levels. We describe the general dynamics of these changes (and the corresponding ERP components) and discuss how ERP research can advance our current understanding of SLA in general.

The influence of lexical familiarity on ERP responses during sentence comprehension in language learners

Mueller, J. L. — Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

Previous research on event-related potentials (ERPs) on second language processing has revealed a great degree of plasticity in brain mechanisms of adult language learners. Studies with natural and artificial languages show that the N400 as well as the P600 component appear in learners after sufficient training. The present experiment tests if and which ERP components in response to syntactic and thematic processes generalize to unfamiliar lexical material in adult language learners. Learners of a miniature version of Japanese were presented with correct and incorrect sentences, half of which contained an unfamiliar word in the crucial sentence position. Incorrect sentences were either case-marking violations or word category violations. When all words were familiar, case-marking violations elicited a biphasic N400—P600 pattern and word category violations led to an early negativity that was followed by a P600. When the case violation occurred on an unfamiliar noun, only a P600 was seen. Word category violations that involved unknown verbs led to an early negativity and only to a reduced P600. The results suggest a high degree of nativelikeness for the learners during processing of familiar sentences. Unfamiliar words seem to entail additional processing costs and specifically lead to difficulties in the domain of case processing.

Measuring second language proficiency with EEG synchronization: how functional cortical networks and hemispheric involvement differ as a function of proficiency level in second language speakers

Reiterer, S., Pereda, E., Bhattacharya, J. — Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

This article examines the question of whether university-based high-level foreign language and linguistic training can influence brain activation and whether different L2 proficiency groups have different brain activation in terms of lateralization and hemispheric involvement. The traditional and prevailing theory of hemispheric involvement in bilingual language processing states that bilingual and second language processing is always at least in some form connected to the right hemisphere (RH), when compared to monolingual first language processing, the classical left-hemispheric language-processing domain. A widely held specification of this traditional theory claims that especially bilinguals or second language learners in their initial phases and/or bilinguals with poor fluency and less experience rely more on RH areas when processing their L2. We investigated this neurolinguistic hypothesis with differently proficient Austrian learners of English as a second language. Two groups of L2 speakers (all Austrian German native speakers), differing in their L2 (English) language performance, were recorded on electroencephalography (EEG) during the processing of spoken English language. A short comprehension interview followed each task. The `high proficiency group' consisted of English language students who were about to complete their master's degree for English language and linguistics, while the `low proficiency group' was composed of non-language students who had only school level performance and less training in English. The age of onset of L2 learning was kept constant: 9 years for both groups. To look for cooperative network activity in the brain, EEG coherence and synchronization measures were analysed for a high EEG frequency range (gamma band). Results showed the most significant group differences in synchronization patterns within the lower gamma frequency range, with more RH involvement (extensive right-hemisphere networks) for the low proficiency group, especially when processing their L2. The results can be interpreted in favour of RH theories of second language processing since, once again, we found evidence of more RH involvement in (late) second language learners with less experience and less training in the L2. The study shows that second language training (and resulting proficiency) and/or differences in ability or state of linguistic alertness can be made visible by brain imaging using newly developed EEG-synchronization techniques as a measure.

An fMRI study of level of proficiency as a predictor of neurocognitive convergence for L1/L2 during a lexicosemantic task in a paediatric population

Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

Studies on bilingualism from a neurocognitive perspective have begun to attract considerable interest recently. Contextual variables — such as age of acquisition, level of proficiency and frequency of use — have been identified as significantly impacting on the convergence or divergence of representations in first language (L1) and second (L2) language acquisition. The neurocognitive effect of bilingualism in paediatric populations, nevertheless, has not been widely investigated. Results from recent bilingual neuroimaging studies of word processing are discussed and compared to results obtained from a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study of bilingual primary school children executing a productive lexicosemantic task. Previous studies indicate `level of proficiency' as a determinant of convergence of L1/L2 patterns during lexicosemantic tasks. Our results suggest that level of proficiency may be an inadequate predictor of convergence at least in paediatric populations, and demonstrate early influence of sequential bilingualism on the mother tongue as well.

Second language research using magnetoencephalography: a review

Schmidt, G. L., Roberts, T. P.L. — Thu, 22 Jan 2009 06:21:22 PST

In this review we show how magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a constructive tool for language research and review MEG findings in second language (L2) research. MEG is the magnetic analog of electroencephalography (EEG), and its primary advantage over other cross-sectional (e.g. magnetic resonance imaging, or positron emission tomography) functional imaging methods is the superior temporal resolution it affords. After an overview of MEG technology, research exploring visual language processing in L2, nonnative phonemic contrasts and syntactic processing in L2 are reviewed. We also review MEG investigations of the advantages of bilingualism and of language lateralization differences across languages with different characteristics.